Abstract:
Car microenvironments significantly contribute to the daily pollution exposure of commuters, yet health and so cioeconomic studies focused on in-car exposure are rare. This study aims to assess the relationship between air
pollution levels and socioeconomic indicators (fuel prices, city-specific GDP, road density, the value of statistical life
(VSL), health burden and economic losses resulting from exposure to fine particulate matter ≤2.5 µm; PM2.5) during
car journeys in ten cities: Dhaka (Bangladesh); Chennai (India); Guangzhou (China); Medellín (Colombia); S˜
ao Paulo
(Brazil); Cairo (Egypt); Sulaymaniyah (Iraq); Addis Ababa (Ethiopia); Blantyre (Malawi); and Dar-es-Salaam
(Tanzania). Data collected by portable laser particle counters were used to develop a proxy of car-user exposure
profiles. Hotspots on all city routes displayed higher PM2.5 concentrations and disproportionately high inhaled doses.
For instance, the time spent at the hotspots in Guangzhou and Addis Ababa was 26% and 28% of total trip time, but
corresponded to 54% and 56%, respectively, of the total PM2.5 inhaled dose. With the exception of Guangzhou, all the
cities showed a decrease in per cent length of hotspots with an increase in GDP and VSL. Exposure levels were in dependent of fuel prices in most cities. The largest health burden related to in-car PM2.5 exposure was estimated for
Dar-es-Salam (81.6 ± 39.3 μg m− 3
), Blantyre (82.9 ± 44.0) and Dhaka (62.3 ± 32.0) with deaths per 100,000 of the
car commuting population per year of 2.46 (2.28–2.63), 1.11 (0.97–1.26) and 1.10 (1.05–1.15), respectively.
However, the modest health burden of 0.07 (0.06–0.08), 0.10 (0.09–0.12) and 0.02 (0.02–0.03) deaths per 100,000
of the car commuting population per year were estimated for Medellin (23 ± 13.7 μg m− 3
), Sa˜o Paulo (25.6 ± 11.7)
and Sulaymaniyah (22.4 ± 15.0), respectively. Lower GDP was found to be associated with higher economic losses
due to health burdens caused by air pollution in most cities, indicating a socioeconomic discrepancy. This assessment
of health and socioeconomic parameters associated with in-car PM2.5 exposure highlights the importance of imple menting plausible solutions to make a positive impact on peoples’ lives in these cities
