A Case–Control Study to Evaluate Environmental and Lifestyle Risk Factors for Esophageal Cancer in Tanzania

Abstract

Background: East Africa is affected by a disproportionately high burden of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC). Methods:We conducted an incident case–control study in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania with 1:1 matching for gender and age. A ques tionnaire evaluated known and putative risk factors for ESCC. Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel and multivariable conditional logistic regression analyses were applied to evaluate associations with ESCC risk, with adjustment for geographic zone. Results: Of 471 cases and 471 controls, the majority were male (69%); median ages were 59 and 55, respectively. In a multivariable logistic regression model, a low International Wealth Index (IWI) score [OR 2.57; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.41–4.68], former smoking (OR 2.45; 95% CI, 1.46–4.13), second-hand smoke in the household (OR 1.67; 95% CI, 1.01–2.77), daily spicy chilies (OR 1.62; 1.04–2.52), and daily salted foods (OR 2.02; 95% CI, 1.06–3.85) were associated with increased risk of ESCC. Daily consumption of raw greens (OR 0.36; 95% CI, 0.16–0.80), fruit (OR 0.47; 95% CI, 0.27–0.82), and smoked fish (OR 0.31; 95% CI, 0.15–0.66) were protective. Permanent residence in the Central (OR 5.03; 95% CI, 2.16–11.73), Northern-Lake (OR 2.40; 95% CI, 1.46–3.94), or Southern Highlands zones (OR 3.18; 95% CI, 1.56–6.50) of Tanza nia were associated with increased risk compared with residence in the Eastern zone. Conclusions: Low IWI score, smoke exposure(s), geographic zone, and dietary factors were associated with risk for ESCC in Tanzania.